Customise pictograms for a specific purpose

In the previous sections, this research has discussed about the history of pictogram and identified its benefit as the sign in all aspects of life and also research language track for the potential of pictograms replacing linguistic function to cultivate and facilitate understanding. Besides what has mentioned, there were also some projects, which were meant to customise pictograms in assisting those under privilege users that were similar to the use of new medicinal label design to facilitate general public in understand the medical instructions.

According to Edo Smithshuijzen, in the recent years, there was a pictographic sign system called ‘Blissymbolics’ which consist of two thousand signs that were applied in the Ontario Crippled Children’s Centre, Australia to aid diagnosis, therapy and medical instructions for its patient (2007, p.328).

Austrian graphic designer, Lois Lanier created a system called COMPIC, which consisted of one thousand six hundred signs that aims to assist in communication with Children who have physical and mental difficulties.

Peter Houts developed a series of simple drawings that help to communicate with his predominantly AIDS and cancer patients (2007, p.328).

Some of these projects have since been developed to be an augmentative communication resource, which both adults and children can use in a various settings to assist in overcoming literacy difficulties. The pictogram helps to bridge the gap where communication is not occurring. 

One of the good example for the used of pictograms in communicating the functions and usage of the medicine locally is the traditional ointment - Singapore Hong Wei Chong dragon gold standard active oil (龙虎活络油品). It has a long history for its traditional Chinese medicine ointment specialises in relieve pain and alleviate muscle for traumatic bleeding, rheumatism, bruises and swelling. There are a few images on its traditional packaging in full color illustrating the functions of the ointment for older generation, there are similar used of illustration in a modern style to others newer brand Chinese ointment like tiger palm as well. This clearly shown that pictograms have empathetic qualities for creating an atmosphere of mood, where figurative images will stick more easily in the human memory especially work well for elderly. In fact, pictorial representation may enhance recollection of verbal information has long been known in design and communication industry, however there are still much work to be done on pictograms to be incorporated onto medicinal label design to understand how exactly it may work in the local context. 

Tracking of pictorial language

Actually the first picture language - Isotype (International System of Typographic) was founded and developed by Austrian sociologist Otto Neurath (1882 – 1945) in 1936, a main function of Isotype was to transform a complex source of information into a self-explanatory chart in addition making them visually attractive and memorable.

According to Edo Smithshuijzen: Otto Neurath invented the famous Isotype pictorial system that has proved to be internationally usable. In one of his book titled The Language of a Global Polis, he displayed his global understanding of the unification between culture and linguistic. Neurath established his view towards the modern metropolis by using visual media to create pictorial statistics. (2007, p.324).

Many of Neurath’s works demonstrate the extraordinary reach of his historical, scientific and geographical awareness and knowledge, as well as his confidence and ambition in the use of Isotype charts to convey this information. A series of three books for children eventually published in 1948, titled 'Visual history of mankind', the books explained the rationale behind this innovative approach to teaching history. The use of questions it proposes would encourage children to engage with the content of charts. The charts themselves would be designed according to Isotype principles: purposeful use of color; use of comparison; making sure that the most important things could be seen at first glance, with more detail being evident on closer scrutiny; and the consistent use of pictorial symbols. (Isotype revisited, 2009)

This marked the beginning of graphic revolution in applying pictogram interdisciplinary. Neurath's "international picture language" laid the foundation for international graphic symbols, i.e. for the pictographic signals of airport, train-station, and highway signs. Today, the use of graphics at the human-computer interface further demonstrates the power of pictographic communication.

Pictograms Metamorphosis of Language

Roland Barthes (1915 – 1980) a French semiotician, whose work stands unrivalled in many respects in providing insights into all aspects of social and cultural life as semiotically organised, had developed the notion of the motivated sign. He stated in his article ‘Myth today’: What is a characteristic of myth? It is to transform a meaning into forms. In other words, myth is a language-robbery.

He also states that: Myth is a type of speech. Speech of this kind is a message. It is therefore by no means confined to oral speech. It can consist of modes of writing or of representations; not only written discourse, but also photography, cinema, reporting, sport, shows, publicity, all these can serve as a support to mythical speech. Myth can be defined neither by its object nor by its material, for any material can arbitrarily be endowed with meaning. (Annette Lavers, 1984).

Human have constantly attempted at a theoretical unification of the different modes of representations. Much effort has been put into research and experimentation to documenting observations drawn from the responses. From the early day Garrick Mallery’s book titled Picture Writing of the American Indians to recent year Milton Glaser’s ‘I love NY’ logo, many visual representations marked the evolutionary track of language.

Laymen may ask if there is but a sign language, universally understood, the answer is ‘no’. But we are closer to the ultimate unification with mutual agreement in the use of signs through these research and experimentation. One of the most recent break-through was the development of ‘picture language’.   

A conference paper published from NPO Pangaea, which is a non-profit organization located in Japan, during 2006 Computer Supported Cooperative Work conference at Alberta, Canada. An observation made through a play between 10 – 14 year-old Japanese and Korean children, where there was a blank sheet of canvas prepared for them and observation done through, firstly: how children substitute words by pictograms and does pictograms have an alternative function? Secondly: do children use it to symbolize the exact meaning what they want to convey or include their emotions as well even if the ultimate presentation becomes ambiguous?

Some of the interesting sentences were constructed, for example ‘Why are Korean’s teeth beautiful?’ and even long sentences like ‘I went to my grandparents’ house and did the bubble. It was pleasant.’ The conclusion drawn was pictograms were alternatively exchanged for vocabulary words and used as rough concept to a message. In other words, even if the meaning of a pictogram was not clear, children replaced pictograms to creates parts of pictures and tell the remaining stories. There was a clear message that children were able to used pictographs in various ways. Indeed, it is great potential in the used of pictograms in replacing language.

In a research paper written by Kazunari Ito, a Ph.D. Degree student in Computer Science from Keio University in 2005, where he had developed a prototype to automate conversion of language to a pictogram representation in computer. The users just have to key in a group of computer-generated command to convert a simple English or Japanese sentence into pictograms representation, be it in still or animated form. A user need to push the button ‘register’ after punching in a simple command like: ‘I walked to hospital from school’. The conversion from text to pictogram has made possible to facilitate people with problems in understanding words for example people diagnosed with Dyslexia. Once again this has proved that pictogram is possible to be developed into more comprehensible and fully proficient in taking centre stage in the communication process in future.

The use of pictograms across all professions

One possible reason why pictograms remain relatively elusive in the domain of pictorial production and comprehension is due to the fact that pictograms are particularly complex sign systems. Following the dictum that pictures are worth a thousand words, pictograms typically contained multiple layers of meanings that co-exist simultaneously merely on the two-dimensional visual, whether it was on signage, banners, directional booths, stickers or computers screen. All these layers are capable of being presented all at once.

In the 2009 International Conference on Biometrics and Kansei Engineering held in Cieszyn, Poland, pictogram as a main element to support interactive on verbal communication was discussed, where a concept of "Pict-script" was introduced.

Makiko Okita, Yuuki Nakaura, Hidetsugu Suto states: Pict-script is a language using pictograms. It is high flexibility and can be used for not only consecutive expressions but also diagrammatic expressions. It is usable by not only people with disabilities but also people in general. It can be used for various styles of communication. Besides, Its output can indicate the user’s feelings. It promotes communication, where a picture that is not necessarily corresponding only to a word (IEEE Computer Society)

In the book titled: Language in the legal process, Janet Cotterill states:

In a case involving non-English speaking farm worker injured by pesticides, the court observed that the label was in English only and lacked ‘skull and bones, or other comparable symbols or hieroglyphics.’ Moreover, governmental regulations sometimes encourage or require the use of certain symbols. Thus, federal law requires products with a certain percentage of benzene to display a skull and cross bones symbol (2002, p.60)

Pictograms serve as the channel of communication across all aspects of life, certain standardization help people get used to the images and gradually learn their precise meaning. Indeed pictograms have the advantage of crossing cultural, even geographic boundaries, striving to be universally applicable, considering it is one of the most common pictorial representations that every human may encounter.

In the earlier section, this research discussed that humans communicate through visuals instinctively. Pictograms play a significant role in social-cognitive development. At the core of social-cognitive development in general, there is the propensity to reproduce actions and their effects, whether by imitation, action exploration, or observational learning (Laura L. Namy, 2005). Pictograms development is inseparable from a fundamental need for human to communicate, and ultimately to maintain social proximity with others. From a broader perspective, pictogram development as a subset of social cognitive development, pictograms serve as communicative means to a social end across all professions.

History of pictograms and its development

In general, from the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs, Chinese characters to Olympic games symbols and today’s many road signs and computer icons, pictograms have been used as a tool for communication. For many years, humans have been using pictograms to make symbolism for religions, maps, texts, numeric, codes, emblems, markings and signings. It is not difficult for Internet users to notice the common use of graphic interface on virtual desktop, pictograms in representing folders, documents, grabbing hands, trash bin, etc, are all the pictorial language found in the computer system universally.  

Excitingly, in this technologically-savvy age, even the worldwide use of email has generated a new form of small icon made with punctuation marks, called ‘emoticons’, that are used to add an expressive tone of voice to the written information, this shown how much a person desired to express through a visual mean.

However, over the years, many attempts have been made to create legible pictograms that could be used for general purposes, such as a replacement for alphabetic signs and a universal pictorial language. Some of the limitations of pictograms become clearer through many past-recorded experiments. Firstly, not everyone understands what a pictogram represents and many viewers may not understand the content of the pictograms. Secondly, there will always be space limitation of the graphic representation of pictogram. For instance, there is no picture that could unquestionably express the word ‘exit’, for an exit door looks like any other door. 

The good news is - simple pictorial images have found a secure place next to written verbal language (Edo, 2007). For instance, the illustration of a male and female on the signage means ‘wash room’ or ‘toilet’, the illustration of a burger and drink with a bard cut across diagonally signifies ‘no food’ and also, a figure in a sitting position on top of a circle symbolized ‘for handicapped’ to the general public. Many pictograms have become familiar to most of us, which can be used without restriction. In fact, it brings an instant understanding to audience in most cases.

  Pictograms have been capitalised in many other professional countenances. In many industries, there is constant need to create abbreviation for terminology that they often use, undesirably creating barriers between the informed and the laymen. Hereafter, some abbreviations can be replaced by pictograms. A wide range of pictograms has been implemented in various professions, which include: road signs for public transportation managed by Land Transport Authority, Singapore, Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (SMRT) and airport, public institutions like Singapore National Parks  and others expert services like biomedical, legal and even politics.

 

Pictorial Representation and Comprehension

As mentioned in the previous entry, It is important to research on the use of medium in bringing forth the content of the medicinal label. A proper use of medium make a whole lot of different in presenting the visual. 

Humans developed pictorial representation as early as the Stone Age, where rock paintings were found in the cave that human lived in. A lot of research has shown that, the representations of human in cave paintings was rare, mostly animals were painted. Not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the rhinoceros or large cats. A rock painting in India - a world heritage site was one of the typical examples for a pictorial representation. Bhimbetka reflects an interaction between people and the landscape. It is closely associated with a hunting and gathering economy, as demonstrated in the rock art and in the relics of this tradition in the Adivasi villages on the periphery of the site. Instinctively, human expresses knowledge or information through imaging when language was still in the developmental stage. Therefore, the practical reason for introducing new medicinal labels in using pictorial representation has an extensive history.

World Heritage Convention

We live in visually stimulated cultures where interpretation is made up by different perception. Individuals or shared experiences and the entire process are heavily influenced by visual, audio and senses. Through observation expressed explicitly in the environment, human perception was formed. For instance, as a teenager living in Singapore, the locals may find it fascinating to possess chewing gum where the government imposed a very strict law in prohibiting its consumption. They may not only see chewing gum as a product but behind the image that was cast from the stringent law, the people see destructive behaviors, concept of discipline and authoritative.

There are many pictorial materials that had been used to represent concepts and ideas, for example: photographs, paintings, movies, statues, scriptures and so on. Since early days, pictogram was one of the common mediums for pictorial representations. A pictogram is a type of illustration that falls into the category of signs, which it is also a main element in the semiotic. Pictogram is described as being part of a picture language, in other words a language consisting of pictorial symbols. Both the content of the illustration and its graphical representation are kept very simple so to bring across a clear message. Pictogram is potentially advantage such as being concise and capable of crossing the boundaries of all existing languages; it strives to be universally applicable (Edo, 2007, p.96).

Semiotic Theory in Visual Communication

To answer the first question, here are the research on the semiotic theory so as to build a fundamental concept for the formation of the pictogram in aiding ageing population: 

Semiotic essentially is the analysis of signs or study of the governing rules of sign system. ‘Semiotic’ comes from the Greek word ‘Semeiotikos’ meaning an interpreter of signs. However, this process of interpretation is a complicated one.

Barthes declared that 'semiology aims to take in any system of signs, whatever their substance and limits; images, gestures, musical sounds, objects, and the complex associations of all of these, which form the content of ritual, convention or public entertainment: these constitute, if not languages, at least systems of signification' (1967, p.9).

Semiotic is a science that studies signs within the conceivable society and in fact, it is part of the social psychology. It is an assemblage of signs, such as words, images, sounds and gestures constructed and interpreted with reference to the conventions associated with a genre and in a particular medium of communication.

Language is one of the most common medium that semiotics employ, where ideas are expressed through the system of writing. However, assorted signs require a definitive presentation. For instance, analogical signs such as gestures, textures, tastes and smells, are signs that can be fathomed beyond words and it always signify emotions and feelings to the recipients. It is often expressed through visual, sensory and interactive arts. Analogical signs are not directly related to syntax (formal relations between signs) in the way that linguistic signs do.

As Bill Nichols notes that: 'The graded quality of analogue signs may make them rich in meaning but it also renders them somewhat impoverished in syntactical complexity or semantic precision (1981, p.47).

Therefore an effective medicinal label design should have the characteristic of an analogical sign, which has a richer explanation in a non-verbal manner. Its emphasis on the visual communication allows comprehension beyond linguistic boundaries. Additionally, the sign should be created in a contextualised manner according to the possible interpretations from the conceivable society to demolish the linguistic barrier.

Saussure’s signified and signifier

Like many semioticians proclaim, Ferdinand De Saussure (1857-1913) argued that an image is no longer only an illustration instrument, it should be the visual projection of the main elements in a communication process that is no longer fully sufficient through mere linguistics. Many people have an impression that images should be used as a tool to enhance a linguistic communication, but not taking the centre stage, even though there have been much said about a picture painting a thousand words. For centuries, this is a stereotype that human servitude themselves with. Therefore designers should always push the creative boundary to see the shift in the paradigm, to make communication susceptible to all mankind, where in future communication may be happen even solely with signs. 

Terence Hawkes quotes, in Saussure’s favorite concept of a tree, the relations between the concept of a tree (signified) and the sound image by the word ‘tree’ (signifier) create a picture of a physical leafy object growing in the earth. However, the word ‘tree’ has absolutely no ‘natural’ or ‘tree like’ quality in it (2003, p.14).

Therefore, based on Saussure’s theory, the assumption that language is self-regulating through time can be valid, because the structure of the language is able to create meaning of the word or images in a person’s mind. Likewise, an individual may receive verbal medical instructions from a staff nurse who is stationed at the pharmacy counter together with an illustration that explains the function and usage of the medicine as a label; undoubtedly this would reinforce the power of communication. 

Ferdinand de Saussure

Speculate upon the image that appealed in the virtual setting that creates understanding, where signs can be stimulated. Thus, elderly may disregard the limitation of their physical deficiency where deteriorating eye sight will no longer be a predominant barrier come to understand the medicinal instructions. The positive impact of visual communication through appropriate analysis of the signs changes the dynamics of a communication process.

           According to the principle from Saussare’s theory, since a signifier would create an image in human perception to signify a concept, regular public education of what this project is all about will help people to be familiarised with the new medicinal labels, especially the elderly. There will be a series of guidebooks with different languages to enhance the use of the new medicinal labels to bring about a heightened awareness and correct interpretation for each illustration. Furthermore, a well-planned public education campaign on the new medicinal labels will help designers design for an ageing population.

Peirce’s intricate interplay

Floyd Merrell states, Charles Sanders Pierce’s (1839 – 1914) says, ‘Intricate interplay where there are a synergy between firstness, secondness, and thirdness.

Firstness is an entity without definable part, which is only a possibility - it is not an identified concrete quality of something. Secondness is actuality – what happens to be at the moment of it happening here and now. Thirdness is probability – what would be, could be or should be, given a certain set of conditions.

Sign is often taken as something that stands for something to someone in some respect or capacity (2001, p.34).

Charles Sanders Pierce

Indeed, each individual interprets a sign according to how they were brought up and life experiences. This research discussed in the previous section that a sign symbolises a meaning for each individual. Through the study of Peirce’s semiotic principle, it is possible to identify the possible ways of a concept may create an impressional sign to an individual mind and this will enable insights into the formation of impression. It also helps to gain an understanding how an individual makes personal judgment on the visual information with specific pictorial materials given.

According to Peirce’s theory as mentioned, firstness is always a possibility, the unpolished signs that are presented to the receivers (2001, p.34). It is usually initiated by a sensation of having something that grasp the whole attention of someone and occupying the thoughts and permeating the consciousness in the virtual setting. Therefore the illustrations that would be incorporated onto the medicinal label should be visually appealing, comprehensible to general public where the subconscious may registered the signs in a person’s complex mind.

Secondness is existential. It happens in the real world with certain contact between sign and the interpreter; it actualises what was initially in someone’s mind in the reality, where it may be a draft concept, a blur image or simply a faint idea, that the interpreter may rationalise it in his make up, to bring about an understanding of the thinking in his mind. A sign illustrating a message can be tested in the daily routine of a person’s life. It may synergise the understanding of the sign and as a result, further strengthen the interpreter’s conviction to the sign system. For instance, a patient with a runny nose can usually be identified with a handkerchief. A simple and straightforward illustration like this may correspond to an unambiguous message to the target audience. Hence, this encourages better and clearer communication. 

The illustration that will be incorporated onto the new medicinal label should be simple and common to the general public. It should be reasonably understood by the users, after taking into account their culture and social background. For example the visual is more persuasive with a female figure illustrating the benefit of a facial blemish cream compared to a male figure.

The theory of thirdness makes essential to form a culture, where it forms the way we act in a given environment. We shape the culture through our interactions with the environment in contrary to how the environment shapes our way of dealing; it is a constant process. Thirdness deals in representation for what is the probability that stimulates responses, where essentially a representation of a sign to a person draws an initial idea in a virtual setting. He can later relate it to an identical event in the real life setting, thus creating possible responses upon that impression.

Likewise, the new medicinal label that would be presented to the users with a pictorial material illustrating the benefits, usage, timing and dosage of the medicines may draw a primarily concept to the users. In conjunction with that, there will be a series of marketing collaterals for the purpose of public education with simple illustrations presented to the users to facilitate their understanding and direct users towards the implementation of the new medicinal labels.

Peirce’s concept of the semiotic theory is always based on a detailed study of human behavior and applying the concept back onto human lives (2001, p.34). Signs can represent specific messages to someone and through a proper process of education of administering the medicine; it can build an understanding, which will then be inspired by a positive interpretation, which is desired by the creator. Additionally, the implementation of the public education may direct users for the benefit of the new formulated label besides clarifying the functions of each illustration. 

Semiotic not only works well with education but it is often worked best through appropriate medium. As mentioned, language is one of the medium where a system of signs that express ideas comparable to the system of writing, however, human experience is inherently multi-sensory, and every representation of experience is subject to the constraints and limitation of the medium that involved. For instance, even with the most flexible medium of language, sometimes words can fail us in attempting to represent some experiences. Indeed different medium and genres provide different frameworks representing experiences and it may facilitate some forms of expression or obstruct others. Therefore, other than language, the use of other medium such as motion graphics, photographs, films, video, computer imaging, etc are encouraged to abjure miscommunication. 

Since visual aids have always been used in facilitating communication, it is necessary to identify a specific medium amongst all the visual aids, in which semiotics can be applied appropriately for the benefit of the general public through a new medicinal label design.